1836 The abundance of Wardandi boodjar – Monang and Lieutenant Henry Bunbury

This talk was given at a commemoration event in Busselton on 22 February 2026

‘I begin today by acknowledging the Wardandi people, Traditional Custodians of the land on which we gather today, and pay my respects to their Elders past, present and emerging. I recognise their continued connection to the land and waters of this beautiful place, and acknowledge that they never ceded sovereignty. I extend that respect to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples here today.’

This history I am going to read is about Lieutenant Henry St Pierre Bunbury who was in the 21^st Regiment and was posted to the Swan River Colony in 1836. In 1836 and 1837 Governor Stirling tasked Bunbury to conduct massacres on Ballardong land (Boodjar). In between these two violent incidents, Bunbury was posted to Pinjarra, and Stirling asked him to walk down from Pinjarra to the Vasse area where the Bussell family had claimed land in 1834.

In December 1836, Stirling tasked Lieutenant Bunbury to undertake an exploratory expedition overland from Pinjarrah to the Vasse. Bunbury, his servant Hertman, and a soldier of the 21^st regiment called Allison accompanied him. Their guide for this journey was a son of Pinjareb leader Calyute, called Monang. Monang was wounded during the Pinjarra massacre of 1834, but had now recovered.[1] Now, his father Calyute was allowing Monang, a seasoned warrior, to accompany Bunbury on an expedition, and it appears that he did this to give Monang stature in the Binjareb community. Calyute may also have been interested in finding out what Bunbury and the British settlers were planning.

On 14 December 1836, the group walked seventeen miles through a flat country with sections of banksia or small jarrah trees, bare clay areas and ‘spearwood swamps’, passing Myalup on the way to the Coreigeca Bilya (Harvey River).[2] Bunbury reported that this area was very swampy in winter.[3] They crossed over a grassy plain abundant with kangaroos and stopped for the night at a deep pool on the banks of the Coreigeca Bilya, further up from a crossing where there was an ‘extensive’ fish trap system.[4]

On 15 December 1836 they crossed the Coreigeca Bilya and came to an area with larger jarrah trees and white gums, and a large wetland on the east called Cannanup, according to Monang.[5] It was a hot day, but there was abundant green feed, as the ground was still swampy, and they were able to dig a hole to obtain water. Monang told Bunbury that this area was not part of Binjareb land, and Bunbury intended that they reach the northern part of Gomborup (Leschenault Estuary) that day, so by now they would have crossed into Wardandi boodjar.[6] There were a lot of tuart trees and it was open clear country in this area, so it was managed by firestick methods. Bunbury found it to be ‘fine open forest country through which the travelling was quick and easy.’[7]

The group now came upon a Wardandi village on the edge of a circular lake surrounded by large rushes. The Wardandi group was seated around their fires, but started up immediately on seeing the soldiers, with the women and children gathering their cotto (bags) and bwoka (cloaks) to flee, while the men raised their spears and yelled a warning to the strangers.[8] Monang went out in front, while the soldiers stayed behind, approaching the Wardandi warriors with his own spear raised. He was soon recognised by one Wardandi warrior, and the others dropped their spears, and each one hugged him as they were introduced. Monang stood with his head down as he received these affectionate welcomes. The entire Wardandi group, men, women and children, then approached the strangers, asking Monang many questions about the armed men and their horses. When the Wardandi group found out that Bunbury wanted to go to Gomborup, they offered to accompany the group.[9]

As the now considerably enlarged party travelled west, they came to another large wetland, called Miellup by the Wardandi. It was covered with bullrushes and Monang told Bunbury that it was a major breeding place for kuljak (black swans), and therefore an abundant source of food at the end of winter in the breeding season.[10] The trees in the area were now wanil, the coastal peppermints, and it was the first time Bunbury had seen them, calling them ‘the most picturesque tree in the colony.’[11] Guided by the Wardandi group, Bunbury and the soldiers followed an almost invisible Wardandi path to the head of Gomborup. There, the path became so well-trodden that even the strangers could follow it. The tide was out, and there was a large expanse of mud between the shore and the water of the Derbal (Estuary), which was covered in bird life, including ducks, teal and pelicans. The sun was beginning to set, and the tranquil waters of the huge Derbal was slowly covered with the shadows of the tall sandhills to the west.[12]

The Wardandi party lit a large fire to announce their arrival, and several other large fires sprang up immediately. There was no wind, so the smoke from the fires rose up in a ‘thick white column contrasting in a most picturesque manner with the dark foliage behind.’[13] The Wardandi group led Bunbury and his party for three more miles, to a small well that had been dug, but Bunbury found it to be too brackish.

A large group of new Wardandi people surrounded them, very curious and friendly. Most of them went to fires nearby to sleep, leaving the strangers alone. Bunbury was surprised to see so many Wardandi people. He had thought the Binjareb people were a large population, but the Wardandi were a far more numerous group again. There were many ‘well beaten paths near the banks’ of the Derbal, and many little villages of huts, ‘made with some care’ out of paperbark, evidence of how many people were living there.[14] Bunbury described these huts as ‘deserted’ but many Wardandi people came to see the strangers, and then left later on to sleep, so they may have been used then.

Bunbury’s group set up camp, starting a fire with a large pile of balga (grass tree) trunks, to ‘counteract’ the fog rising from the swamp to their left.[15] As darkness grew, Bunbury noticed ‘numerous’ lights flashing on the edges of the Derbal as Wardandi warriors fished for cobbler, mullet, dhufish, taylor and black snapper.[16] The abundance of fish life was the reason this area was so densely populated. As the night wore on, the lights disappeared and Bunbury fell asleep.[17]

On 16 December 1836, Bunbury’s group set off again, progressing along past a second wetland, following along the Derbal on a Wardandi path and white sand until the wetland ended. The countryside then became lightly forested with white gums and banksias. As they continued, group after group of Wardandi people joined them, asking questions and joyful to see the strangers. Bunbury found their questions worrisome, especially those about what was in their bags, as he feared that he would lose their blankets and provisions.

Monang talked to every Wardandi group that approached them, and the expedition slowed down as a result, as so many Wardandi people were curious to meet them. In the end Bunbury put Monang on his horse to hurry things along. Monang needed to deal with this group in an appropriate cultural manner, so after he had showed off his horsemanship, he made a speech to the Wardandi people, giving away his bwoka (kangaroo cloak) and spears. He explained to Bunbury that the people they had met were his fathers, brothers and uncles according to Noongar tradition, and this was obligatory.[18]

Bunbury’s attempts to hurry the group along had helped a bit, and they managed to go about nine miles. He did estimate, however, that from daylight until one in the afternoon that day, the travellers were surrounded by one hundred to two hundred Wardandi at any time.[19] He also noticed that most of the Wardandi men were ‘elderly or lads’, with some warriors amongst them who were ‘athletic stout fellows’ wearing red wilgi (ochre). Overall, there were not as many warriors as Bunbury would have expected, so he surmised that the senior men were elsewhere.[20]

After about five miles travel that day, Bunbury’s group arrived at the Bilya Maardalup (Collie River), which they crossed at the sandy bar where it emptied via two streams into the Derbal.[21] They waded through the water at hip level, and about a dozen of the Wardandi group followed them. One of the Wardandi warriors was a six-foot man. As Bunbury’s group gained the other side of the river, there was a new Wardandi group of at least one hundred and fifty people waiting to receive them. This was a new group of Wardandi people, separate to the Wardandi people that lived on the Derbal so the Bilya Maardalup was probably a defined border between the two Wardandi groups.[22]

The Wardandi group accompanying Bunbury’s group guided them along the Bilya Maardalup, which had abundant pastures, and an area of ochre that could be easily mined. There were drinking hollows in the ochre mud, which the Wardandi people drank from with relish.[23] They were now heading for the Bilya Barajilup (Preston River). The crossing over the Bilya Barajilup was a huge fallen tree, so Bunbury’s group had to wade the horses across further up. Wardandi warriors helped Bunbury and the soldiers carry their goods across the river. Bunbury fell backwards into the river at this point, so after he got out of the water the strangers stopped for a while for the horses to feed on the abundant grass.[24]

As the party rested a large group of Wardandi people gathered around them, laughing, talking and sitting around fires that they had started while they waited for the strangers’ next move. Bunbury only had a little damper, but he boiled up some pork and gave the Wardandi the greasy water to mix up a large amount of wilgi, and they covered their hands, faces, legs and bodies with it. Bunbury noted that this Wardandi group: ‘Do not differ in either manners or appearance from the tribes further north.[25] Bunbury also noticed that the spears used by the Wardandi group were not as heavy as those used in the Murray district and were crafted for catching fish.[26]

That is the end of this excerpt on Lieutenant Bunbury’s description of Wardandi boodjar on this expedition. It clearly shows how many Wardandi people were living in the area in 1836. It is also a good overview of Wardandi culture and society at the time.

References

[1] Bunbury, Lieutenant Bunbury’s Australian Sojourn. 156.

[2] The Binjareb name for the Harvey River is obtained from Arthur Charles Staples, They Made Their Destiny (Shire of Harvey, Western Australia, 1979), 3.

[3] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 3.

[4] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 4.

[5] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 6.

[6] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 7.

[7] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 7-8.

[8] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 8.

[9] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 8.

[10] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 9.

[11] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 9.

[12] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 10.

[13] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 11.

[14] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 12.

[15] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 13.

[16] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 12-13.

[17] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 13.

[18] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 16.

[19] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 17.

[20] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837.

[21] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 17. The name Bilya Maardalup applies to the Collie River south of the Raymond Road exchange today. Maardalup means the ‘place to cross the river where the water comes up to your legs.’ See “Bunbury Outer Ring Road (BORR) to be named Wilman Wadandi Highway,” Main Roads Western Australia, https://www.mainroads.wa.gov.au/projects-initiatives/projects-initiatives-news/borr-071024-bunbury-outer-ring-road-borr-to-be-named-wilman-wadandi-highway/.

[22] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 17.

[23] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 19.

[24] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 20.

[25] Bunbury, Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837: 21.

[26] Bunbury, Lieutenant Bunbury’s Australian Sojourn. 168.

Bibliography

Bunbury, Henry William. Lieutenant Bunbury’s Australian Sojourn: The Letters and Journals of Lt. H.W. Bunbury, 21st Royal North Fusiliers, 1834-1837. Edited by JMR Cameron and Phyllis Barnes. Hesperian Press, 2014.

Bunbury, Henry William St. Pierre. Journal of Henry Bunbury, 1837. https://nla.gov.au:443/nla.obj-594048802.

“Bunbury Outer Ring Road (Borr) to Be Named Wilman Wadandi Highway.” Main Roads Western Australia, https://www.mainroads.wa.gov.au/projects-initiatives/projects-initiatives-news/borr-071024-bunbury-outer-ring-road-borr-to-be-named-wilman-wadandi-highway/.

Staples, Arthur Charles. They Made Their Destiny. Shire of Harvey, Western Australia, 1979.

The Australian Massacre map and Noongar boodjar from 1830 onwards

This was the research I read out at the Wonnerup Massacre March in Busselton on 22nd February 2024 at the invitation of Bill Webb, Wardandi Traditional Owner, from the Wardan Centre at Injidup.

‘I begin today by acknowledging the Wardandi people, Traditional Custodians of the land on which we gather today, and pay my respects to their Elders past, present and emerging. I recognise that Wardandi people have an ongoing connection to the land and waters of this beautiful place from time immemorial, and acknowledge that they never ceded sovereignty. I extend that respect to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples here today.’

The University of Newcastle has produced the Massacre Map of Australia, showing the locations of hundreds of sites where colonial massacres of Aboriginal people took place.[1] On this map are several sites showing massacres on Noongar land. This map is not complete, however, and research on colonial violence in Western Australia is ongoing. Professor Lyndall Ryan, who led the Massacre Map project, hopes that the map will change the way settler Australia views its history, leading to acceptance of this history, and therefore, help with future reconciliation between settler Australia and Aboriginal people.[2]

Essentially, settlers were stealing Aboriginal land, and, when Aboriginal people resisted this invasion, settlers responded violently, killing many Aboriginal people. As Lyndall Ryan has pointed out, these massacres were later denied, and the violence of colonisation has become ‘invisible.’[3] I invite you to hear a list of massacres and violence, mainly on Noongar Land or boodjar, since Western Australia was colonised.

1829 onwards – settler violence on Noongar land

So far, my research shows that the following colonial massacres occurred on Noongar land:

1830 the Galup Massacre – this is on the Massacre Map. [4]

1831 Massacre at Success Hill.[5]

1831 Massacre at Walyunga in the same month. This is on the Massacre Map.[6]

1832 an incident at York when soldiers fired indiscriminately into a camp of Ballardong Noongar people while they were sleeping.[7]

1832 Beeliar Noongar people shot at Soldiers Row in Roleystone.[8]

From 1833 there is a Wadjuk Noongar oral history of a massacre at Hamilton Hill.[9]

During 1833 sixteen Noongar men were killed during the time that Midgegooroo and Yagan were resisting the settler invasion of their land around Perth. This is on the Massacre Map.[10]

1834 the Pinjarra Massacre was led by Governor Stirling. This was the same year that the Busselton district was occupied by settlers. This is also on the Massacre Map.[11]

In 1836 Lieutenant Bunbury was ordered by Governor Stirling to go to the York district and while there, he shot several Ballardong people.[12] This is recorded on the Massacre Map.

In June 1837 settlers from the Vasse district, as Busselton was then called, shot and killed nine Wardandi people, members of Gaywal’s family, after they killed and ate a calf.[13]

1837 in July, Lieutenant Bunbury was again ordered to York by Governor Stirling and conducted a massacre up there with the assistance of soldiers of the 21^st regiment and settlers. This is on the Massacre Map.[14]

In 1837, at the same time, settlers from the Vasse district led a second massacre of Wardandi people after a Wardandi man called Nungundung and others, speared Elijah Dawson, one of the leaders of the first massacre in June, in the arm. This is on the Massacre Map.[15]

In 1839 Resident Magistrate McLeod led another massacre at York, after Sarah Cook and her child were killed by two Ballardong men.[16] It is important to note here that many Ballardong people were indiscriminately killed by settlers, rather than them going out and simply arresting the Ballardong men who had committed that crime.

In 1841, the Wonnerup massacre was conducted by settlers from Busselton, led by Captain John Molloy and John Garrett Bussell, after settler George Layman was killed by Wardandi leader Gaywal.[17] Again, there was indiscriminate killing by settlers, rather than them simply arresting Gaywal for the crime. This is on the Massacre Map.[18]

1857 or so reports of an oral history of a massacre at Cowaramup Bay at South Point.[19]

The colonial violence then moved east and north

After that, colonial violence moved northwards, as settlers occupied and took Indigenous land further out from Noongar Country. In 1854 John Drummond led a massacre at Bootenal Springs south of Geraldton, shortly after settlers from the York district had driven their flocks up there to claim land.[20] In 1864 there was a massacre at De Grey Station in the Pilbara,[21] and in 1865 Maitland Brown and his companions killed many Aboriginal people at La Grange Bay.[22] In 1868 there was a massacre of Kaneang Noongar people near Bridgetown at Eight Mile Well. This is recorded on the Massacre map.[23] In 1880 there was the Cocaranup massacre near Ravensthorpe, east of Minang Noongar Land which is also on the Massacre Map.[24]

After that, many more massacres occurred east and north of Noongar land, and you can have a look at the Massacre Map which is online to find out more. At this stage of research, the most recent colonial massacre in Western Australia we know about was in the East Kimberleys in the 1930s when poisoned meat was given to Kija people at Panton River.[25]

What can we do about this knowledge?

This list is sure to be incomplete, and much more research is needed to document thoroughly all the colonial violence that settlers perpetrated on Noongar Land and other areas in Western Australia. Gatherings like this are important for acknowledging this history. I thank you all for coming, and encourage you to find out more and educate your family and friends as we go along this path of truth telling.

References

[1] “Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930,” University of Newcastle, 2017-2022, https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/map.php.

[2] Jack Latimore, “Massacre sites in WA confirmed with latest update of digital map,” no. 18 November 2019 (2019). https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/massacre-sites-in-wa-confirmed-with-latest-update-of-digital-map/7jr2flqcs.

[3] Latimore, “Massacre sites in WA confirmed with latest update of digital map.”

[4] See “Galup Massacre 1830,” Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930, University of Newcastle, 2017-2022, https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/detail.php?r=885. Frederick Irwin, Letter to Governor James Stirling May 18 1830, 1830, CSR Vol. 6 SROWA Acc 36, p. 146., State Library, Western Australia, https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1WaWV5OcJIei1EDot8s4G81KxxcZ9BQHB

[5] Jane Dodds 1788-1844: A Swan River Colony Pioneer, ed. Lilian Heal (Sydney: Book Production Services, 1988), 60.

[6] Baron von Hügel, New Holland Journal: November 1833-October 1834, ed. trans. Dymphna Clark (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1994), 28.

[7] Jeremy Martens, “‘In a State of War’: Governor James Stirling, Extrajudicial Violence and the Conquest of Western Australia’s Avon Valley, 1830–1840,” History Australia, 19(4), 668-686. (2022): 674, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/14490854.2022.2072351.

[8] City of Armadale Local Heritage Survey 2019 – Stephen Carrick Architects, 2019, 32, https://policycommons.net/artifacts/17272717/local-heritage-survey/18161486/

[9] “Historic Reset,” Fremantle Herald Interactive (2021). https://heraldonlinejournal.com/2021/07/02/historic-reset/.

[10] Ryan, “Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930.” https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/detail.php?r=886

[11] Ryan, “Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930.” See https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/detail.php?r=1029

[12] Lieutenant H.W. Bunbury, Early Days in Western Australia: Being the Letters and Journal of Lieut. H.W. Bunbury, ed. Lieut. Col. W. St. Pierre Bunbury and W.P. Morrell (Oxford University Press, 1930), 27. https://library.dbca.wa.gov.au/static/FullTextFiles/628354.pdf.

[13] Lenox Bussell, Letter from Lenox Bussell to Captain Molloy 28 June 1837 SROWA Acc 36 CSR Vol 54 folios 135-136, 1837, State Library Western Australia. Lenox Bussell’s report states that three Wardandi people were killed, whereas Elizabeth (Bessie Bussell) states in the Cattle Chosen diary that nine Wardandi people were killed and two wounded. See Shann Papers Elizabeth Capel Bussell Diary April-December 1837 Battye Library MN 586; ACC 337A/795: 24.

[14] Ryan, “Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930.”

[15] Ryan, “Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930.” https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/detail.php?r=1035

[16] Neville Green, Broken Spears: Aborigines and Europeans in the Southwest of Australia (Focus Education Services, 1984), 215.

[17] “Wonnerup ‘Minninup’ Massacre 1841,” Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930, University of Newcastle, 2017-2022, https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/detail.php?r=889.

[18] Ryan, “Wonnerup ‘Minninup’ Massacre 1841.”

[19] Leeuwin-Naturalist Capes Area Parks and Reserves Management Plan 81, 45 (2015).

[20] Margaret Hair, “Invisible Country,” M/C Journal, 8(6) (2005), https://doi.org/10.5204/mcj.2460.

[21] Nicholas Smith, “‘Carried off in their hundreds’: Epidemic diseases as structural violence among Indigenous peoples in Northwestern Australia,” History and Anthropology, 31(4) (2020): 531.

[22] Peter Cowan, Maitland Brown: A View of Nineteenth Century Western Australia (Fremantle Arts Centre Press, 1988), 70-98.

[23] Ryan, “Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930.” https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/detail.php?r=1032

[24] Ryan, “Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930.” https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/detail.php?r=895

[25] Pam Smith, “Frontier conflict: Ways of remembering contested landscapes,” Journal of Australian Studies, 31(91) (2007): 17-18.

Bibliography

Bunbury, Lieutenant H.W. Early Days in Western Australia: Being the Letters and Journal of Lieut. H.W. Bunbury. Edited by Lieut. Col. W. St. Pierre Bunbury and W.P. Morrell. Oxford University Press, 1930. https://library.dbca.wa.gov.au/static/FullTextFiles/628354.pdf.

Bussell, Lenox. Letter from Lenox Bussell to Captain Molloy 28 June 1837 SROWA Acc 36 CSR Vol 54 Folios 135-136. State Library Western Australia.

City of Armadale Local Heritage Survey 2019 – Stephen Carrick Architects. https://www.armadale.wa.gov.au/sites/default/files/assets/documents/council/attachment_draft_Local_Heritage_Survey_-_development_services_committee_-_16_july_2019.pdf

Cowan, Peter. Maitland Brown: A View of Nineteenth Century Western Australia. Fremantle Arts Centre Press, 1988.

Green, Neville. Broken Spears: Aborigines and Europeans in the Southwest of Australia. Focus Education Services, 1984.

Hair, Margaret. “Invisible Country.” M/C Journal, 8(6) (2005). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5204/mcj.2460.

“Historic Reset.” Fremantle Herald Interactive. (2021). https://heraldonlinejournal.com/2021/07/02/historic-reset/.

Hügel, Baron von. New Holland Journal: November 1833-October 1834. Edited by trans. Dymphna Clark. Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1994.

Irwin, Frederick. Letter to Governor James Stirling May 18 1830. State Library, Western Australia. https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1WaWV5OcJIei1EDot8s4G81KxxcZ9BQHB

Jane Dodds 1788-1844: A Swan River Colony Pioneer. Edited by Lilian Heal. Sydney: Book Production Services, 1988.

Latimore, Jack. “Massacre Sites in WA Confirmed with Latest Update of Digital Map.” no. 18 November 2019. (2019). https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/massacre-sites-in-wa-confirmed-with-latest-update-of-digital-map/7jr2flqcs.

Leeuwin-Naturalist Capes Area Parks and Reserves Management Plan 81. 2015.

Martens, Jeremy. “‘In a State of War’: Governor James Stirling, Extrajudicial Violence and the Conquest of Western Australia’s Avon Valley, 1830–1840.” History Australia, 19(4), 668-686. (2022). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/14490854.2022.2072351.

“Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930.” University of Newcastle, 2017-2022, https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/map.php.

“Galup Massacre 1830.” Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930, University of Newcastle, 2017-2022, https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/detail.php?r=885.

“Wonnerup ‘Minninup’ Massacre 1841.” Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1930, University of Newcastle, 2017-2022, https://c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/detail.php?r=889.

Shann Papers Elizabeth Capel Bussell Diary April-December 1837 Battye Library MN 586; ACC 337A/795.

Smith, Nicholas. “‘Carried Off in Their Hundreds’: Epidemic Diseases as Structural Violence among Indigenous Peoples in Northwestern Australia.” History and Anthropology, 31(4) (2020).

Smith, Pam. “Frontier Conflict: Ways of Remembering Contested Landscapes.” Journal of Australian Studies, 31(91) (2007).